Taverns were the center of colonial life in Virginia and beyond. The tavern (also known as an ordinary, inn, or public house) ranged from rural outposts dotting travel routes, to elaborate gathering halls in state capitals and other bustling trading towns. Contradictory rules about who could patronize the tavern and who could own or work at the tavern were established by law, and prevented practically everyone except free white men from frequenting such establishments. This exhibition presents an overview of tavern life in Virginia, the role of women and minorities in operations, and the historic Virginian taverns that can still be visited today.
The Colonial Virginia Tavern
Taverns in the colonial period were hubs of activity and social life. In Virginia, taverns dotted heavily trafficked routes as well as cities and towns, serving as post offices, inns, restaurants, and stables, to name a few of their functions. It was typical to find more refined accommodations in urban areas rather than the country – some taverns were infamous for their fleas and bedbugs – but it was often the tavern keeper who set the standard for their services. These spaces helped to connect colonists across tobacco farms, and were frequently run by middle-upper class women in the 18th century (although they were normally forbidden from patronizing them). Taverns were required by law to offer sleeping quarters to its guests, which in Virginia could mean a designated space on the floor, and prices were regulated to curtail the up-charging of customers. Next to churches, taverns were the central social spaces of colonial life. Interestingly, women were often the owners or keepers of the tavern, relying on the labor of enslaved or indentured workers, but these groups were typically barred from patronizing taverns unless there was some special circumstance. This exhibition examines Virginia tavern culture, what was served and who could patronize these spaces, the involvement of women in tavern management, and finally historic Virginia taverns still operating today.
In the 18th century, men and women would drink alcohol all day, everyday, imbibing large quantities on nearly every special occasion. The upper class were heavy drinkers, while the lower class equaled, and sometimes exceeded, the standards set by the upper class. Across this century, taverns multiplied in number and became the sites of working class social life. Initially, taverns were run by the planter class of Virginia, but as towns and marketplaces developed over time, access to supplies and services began to democratize, reducing the dependency of average Virginians on the wealthy. While it does not depict Virginia, this painting by James Hope represents the rural tavern as it would have been seen across the colonies. The “original Intention, and proper Use” of taverns was outlined in the Virginia Gazette in 1751 as “the Reception, Accommodation, and Refreshment of the weary and benighted Traveller.”
Unlike in England, Eighteenth-century Virginians used the terms of ordinary, tavern, and public house interchangeably. These local taverns served large numbers of people in the Tidewater region because coastal trade and political activities would bring many travelers. The Raleigh Tavern in Williamsburg was one of the state’s most renowned taverns, as it was located less than a block from the Capital. It had two spacious ballrooms named the Daphne and The Apollo, the latter of which is illustrated in this engraving. It was common for guests to play games of Box and Dice, drinking and rabble rousing until the sun came up. Travelers and locals found that taverns were spaces for the intermingling of social ranks, where those of upper and lower classes could meet, attend dinners and balls, and gamble.
Colonists relied on taverns for a variety of happenings, such as court proceedings, trading, entertainment, and general business. According to historian Jane Carson, “Councilors and burgesses, ship captains and merchants, lawyers and clients, planters and frontiersmen could all depend upon finding the other men they wanted to see gathered in one of the taverns.” Merchants sometimes used taverns as a place to sell, order, or auction goods – as evidenced by this flier for the New Theatre, Newbern, those interested in attending the play could purchase tickets at Mrs. Downs’ or Mrs. Mitchell’s Tavern. Indeed, an advertisement for a public sale described Wetherburn’s Tavern (which was previously run by his wife Mary Bowcock) in Williamsburg as “the most convenient Spot in this City for Trade,” indicating how common it was to conduct business at a tavern. Businessmen often placed advertisements in the Virginia Gazette for the goods they were selling at taverns. One listed sugar, rum, coffee, ginger, and cotton being offered at an auction held at Yorktown’s Swan Tavern. Other items peddled at taverns included property, clocks, fine furniture, horses, harnesses, silver, and enslaved people.
The legality of tavern operations was sometimes questionable, but in general, Virginia’s county courts were more concerned with tavern keepers violating rules than with drunkenness or tavern violations by patrons. Even so, tavern laws were not widely enforced (possibly due to public outrage), except in some cases. Taverns were nonetheless known as places of loose morals, often decried by religious fundamentalists. This document shows a bootlegging conviction for Elisabeth Weavers, which was a rather common practice. Especially near the coast, pirates and smugglers were fervent patrons of the tavern, and many tavern owners relied on these outlaws to keep their cabinets well stocked with a variety of alcoholic beverages pleasing to their clientele. According to a visiting Northerner, Virginia taverns were chock full of degenerates: “the Virginians crowded abroad and drank away their promises and their profits. Anything that smelled of alcohol would sell.”
What Was Served & Who Could Patronize
Stipulations on who could patronize taverns were commonplace. Women, servants, and both enslaved and indigenous people were prohibited from patronizing taverns except in certain cases. An example from Boston in 1772 records William Cox as being convicted of ‘keeping a disorderly house’ and entertaining blacks, servants, and women.” These convictions were not overly common, as it was unusual to allow these demographics to openly patronize taverns – whether due to legality or pressures from society. Similar restrictions would have been in place in Virginia, and tavern keepers were fined for violating these rules. What patrons drank in Virginia taverns would have depended on what was available during the 1600s, but menus slowly became more ubiquitous as prices and trade routes stabilized over time.
Gadsby’s tavern gives us a clear picture of what was offered in the 18th century, when it was named City Tavern. The menu is rather extensive, as this was a booming ordinary patronized by important individuals like Thomas Jefferson. Like most, Gadsby’s prohibited women and people of color from its main social spaces, although they worked in the tavern either as unseen servants or enslaved workers. A number of enslaved people worked Gadsby’s, and a man named Moses served as the wine steward, or pseudo-sommelier. He likely learned on the job, which would have entailed knowing which wines were requested, what types of glasses were required, and then serving them to dinner guests.
Free white men, as opposed to indentured white men, were the only demographic that could patronize the tavern openly during the colonial period. An indentured servant might accompany his master to the tavern but abstain from drinking, or perhaps work for the tavern keeper, but many contracts specifically stated that the servant could not patronize public houses. This contract for Thomas Callahan reads: “…he Shall not Absent himself Day Nor Night from his sd. Masters Service without his Leave, Nor haunt Ale houses Taverns Or Play houses; But In All Things behave himself As a faithfull Aprentice Ought to Do.”
This particular tankard was likely made for Philadelphia merchant Levi Hollingsworth who dealt in commodities like whiskey. The craftsmanship far exceeds those pewter versions that were used in the average tavern, but it gives us an idea of the general style of the tavern tankard. These vessels are often listed in the probate inventories of tavern keepers, and have been uncovered at excavations of old tavern sites. They were traditionally used to serve beer in Europe, but as the need arose in pioneering Colonial Virginia, they may have been employed for other beverages.
While tavern revelry was mainly reserved for white men, those barred from patronizing the tavern were regularly employed by such establishments. It seems that white men were believed to have stronger constitutions and moral compasses, so it was fine for these men to become drunk and gamble as long as neither the “weaker” sex nor people of color participated. For example, if an indigenous man was found drunk in the colonies, he would be fined ten shillings or be whipped, and the keeper of the ordinary would be fined twenty shillings. It was these types of violations that tavern keepers were most commonly prosecuted for. This was a harsh contrast from the reality of white men, who could simply walk into a tavern and buy a pint. In the above painting, these prejudices are apparent: hierarchy of scale is used to diminish the importance of the dark-skinned indigenous waiters who move unobtrusively through the apparent debauchery of their counterparts.
The Proprietress: Women as Tavern Keepers
Women were integral to tavern life in the colonies, often holding licenses or managing the family tavern. It was agreed that the bacchanal nature of taverns necessitated the “civilizing influence” of women, who could “‘ripen the seeds of virtue’” and encourage fiscal responsibility in men. Despite this, women were not permitted to patronize ordinaries, but were more or less encouraged to run them and keep the men in check. It was not uncommon for a woman to own a tavern, but even when the tavern was male-owned, it was frequently managed by wives and daughters. Wives were known to run ordinaries under their husbands names, and it was typical for a widow to formally take over upon her husband’s passing. Women also worked in taverns as indentured servants or were otherwise employed, telling us that women were indeed active components of colonial tavern society.
It was common for widows to take over tavern operations after their husbands died, as it was a source of financial security and independence. Henry Bowcock ran his Williamsburg tavern until he died in 1730, at which point his widow Mary received an ordinary license to keep things running. She was remarried to Henry Wetherburn in July of 1731, and Wetherburn was granted an ordinary license the next month, so it appears that he took over (at least on paper) once they were married. In 1751, Mary died, and Wetherburn married his second wife Anne Shields 10 days later. Anne was herself a tavern keeper by blood, being the daughter of Frenchman Jean Marot who ran an ordinary from 1707 until his death in 1717, leaving his wife to run the place until their daughter Anne and her second husband James Shields II became the proprietors. After James died, Anne became the sole tavernkeeper until marrying Wetherburn and renting out the space to Daniel Fisher in 1751. It appears Wetherburn was strategic in his marriages to women who inherited taverns, using their positioning to further his own goals.
Williamsburg was a hub for taverns in the colonial period, with many travelers coming from all parts of the state for government proceedings. Taverns were the main accommodation available, so a concentration of these establishments was present in Williamsburg. Women were often permitted to pay for a night’s stay at a tavern (even though they could not drink with the men), but they almost always preferred to stay at a local plantation or with an acquaintance when possible due to the uncertainty of tavern sleeping arrangements. In 1770, Mary Davis took out an ad in the Virginia Gazette proclaiming that her new tavern would accommodate Ladies and Gentlemen with private lodgings; the Gazette read: “…she has removed from Lester’s ferry, and rented Dr. Carter’s large brick house, on the Main street in Williamsburg…She has 12 or 14 very good lodging rooms, with fire places in most of them, which will hold two or three beds in each…”
Two women in particular were known for their Williamsburg ordinaries: Christianna Campbell and Jane Vobe. Washington dined frequently at Christianna’s on his visits to the city of Williamsburg, which operated from c. 1760-1776, also patronizing Jane’s tavern. Christianna was the daughter of a tavernkeeper who married an apothecary in Fredericksburg. After his death, she moved to Williamsburg to open her own tavern – differing from other widows who took over their late husband’s taverns. Jane Vobe was a tavernkeeper from c. 1752-1785, first running an ordinary under her own name and later moving to a location across from the Raleigh where she opened the Kings Arms by 1772. Jane’s tavern was always a hub of activity – here, paintings by Mr. Pratt of England and other artists were exhibited, meetings were held, goods displayed, private lessons in foreign languages were taught, and more. The location Jane left to open the Kings Arms was taken up by Christianna, who purchased the house and two lots in January, 1774. Both of these women were highly enterprising, operating without a male counterpart and entertaining some of Virginia’s most important gentry. By 1783, Jane’s tavern was one of only 2 operating in Williamsburg.
Up in Alexandria, a woman named Hannah Griffith opened a coffee shop in the back of Gadsby’s, obtaining her ordinary license to do so. Her husband David had been the rector of Alexandria Church and they were living in a home owned by the church when he died unexpectedly in 1789, leaving Hannah and her 8 children without a certain future. One married and was given housing by his father in law, leaving her with 7 children to care for. The family had substantial debts, but they also owned a number of lots in Alexandria (which would later become part of Washington, D.C.) that Hannah leased out to cover her family’s expenses. By 1794, she opened the Alexandria Coffee House inside of Gadsby’s Tavern, a type of establishment that would only have been found in bustling cities where a wealthy and sophisticated merchant class could support the endeavor. These coffee houses were typically run by men, unlike taverns, and a certain social prestige was required to attract wealthy patrons that Hannah apparently possessed. Hannah’s situation gives us a picture of the challenges of losing a husband in this period, especially with multiple children – many women would quickly remarry, but in Hannah’s case, she used her sharp acumen to maintain a profitable business. The coffee shop appears to have closed around 1800, and she passed away by 1811.
Virginia Taverns, 1700s to Today
Colonial Williamsburg, as discussed in the previous section, is home to a number of recreated historic taverns, as well as Wetherburn’s, which dates to the 1700s. These are not the only historic taverns still operating in Virginia – Gadsby’s in Alexandria, Hanover Tavern (in Hanover), Michie’s Tavern in Charlottesville, Red Fox Tavern in Middleburg, The Tavern in Abingdon, and Yates Tavern in Gretna were all functional taverns in the 18th century that can be visited today, either as a museum, bar/restaurant, or both.
Originally called City Tavern, Gadsby’s first building was constructed in 1785 and the second in 1792. The tavern was considered to be a rather upscale destination, with a private dining room that could be reserved for a fee, and the type of meal could be selected and paired with the diner’s spirit of choice. A number of enslaved people worked the tavern, including a woman named Candace who fell in love with a free Black man and asked to be freed herself to marry him. Her enslaver agreed on the condition that her husband would work as a carpenter for the tavern. While Black people, free or not, were generally restricted from patronizing the tavern, white women were permitted to dine in the dining room as the guest of a man, and they were also allowed to attend events in the assembly room on the second floor – which was typical for 1700s tavern customs. The events held might include dances, dentist visits, wax figure displays of famous people, exotic animals showcases, acts of ventriloquism, children performing acts of calculation, and slack wire walking (similar to high wire walking). At Gadsby’s, women could additionally rent a space in the rooms without a man, but there was no privacy nor guarantee of a bed. In fact, one woman wrote that her stay at the tavern was a terrible time, as the men were rowdy and unpleasant. Five U.S. presidents patronized Gadsby’s, however, indicating its status as a premier accommodation despite complaints of rowdiness.
Hanover Tavern is one of the oldest continually operating taverns in the country. Founded in 1733, it moved from its original space to a new, nearby building in 1791, where it remains today. The tavern was located right beside the county courthouse, offering lodging and refreshment to those traveling to or from. Notably, the tavern was owned by the family of Patrick Henry’s wife from 1750-1764, and as a young man, he helped around the tavern by greeting and serving guests, tending bar, and playing the fiddle. Taverns were infamous as meeting points for revolutionaries, providing a space where colonists could debate matters relating to the colonies and Great Britain. Virginia taverns in particular fostered a sense of opposition to Parliament; working at the tavern exposed Henry to the legal world, prompting him to obtain a license to practice law by 1760.
In 1784, William Michie applied for his ordinary license to operate a newly built tavern on family land at Buck Mountain in Albemarle County. Licenses were not required under British rule (although local governments may have implemented licensing regulations), but they were required in the newly formed United States. William was politically active and a vocal supporter of independence, so a crowded inn afforded him the opportunity to converse with patrons and share his views. His establishment was more of a rural inn than a city tavern, but the accommodations were top notch for this type of stay. The two-story space featured an upstairs Assembly Room, which was large enough to serve as the social center of both the tavern and the Albemarle countryside. Events held here would have included dances, church services, performances by traveling magicians, visits from doctors and dentists. Profits would have been shared with the tavernkeeper for providing use of the space. Operations continued through the mid-1800s, as stagecoach travel was diminishing, reducing the amount of patrons that would pass the tavern.
A Story of Preservation
At that point, it became Michie’s private home until being sold at an estate auction in 1910. Another family moved in, but the building was rapidly deteriorating – if it were not for the industrious Mrs. Josephine Henderson, it may have been lost to time. Henderson purchased the building in 1927; seeing the success of the recently opened Monticello and a national rise in tourism, she had the tavern dismantled and moved to the base of Carter’s Mountain (right beside Monticello). She then opened a museum here to display her extensive collection of antiques until it was purchased by Milton Grigg in 1932 to use as his architectural office. Michie’s is now open to visitors, with the 1784 tavern building serving local Virginia wines, beers, and ciders. Pictured: One very helpful interpreter in front of Michie’s gift shop.
Joseph Chinn erected a tavern out of local fieldstone in 1728 along a heavily trafficked route at the half-way point between Alexandria and Winchester. Chinn’s Ordinary, as it came to be known, was another tavern that George Washington visited in his travels. In 1787, the town of Middleburg was established in Chinn’s Crossroads, as the area was previously called. With the development of the town, the tavern was renamed the Beveridge House in 1812 and was expanded to 35 rooms, along with the addition of a new wine cellar. The extant building may have older components, but the majority of the structure dates to 1830, with a facade and various remodeling completed in 1940. The current name, Red Fox Inn, was given to the tavern in the 1930s. It is still open to the public, and, along with the Hanover Tavern, remains one of the oldest continually operating taverns in the country.
